In liverworts, asexual reproduction takes place by the process of fragmentation or by the formation of specialized structures called gemmae. These are green coloured, multicellular, asexual buds, which develop in small receptacles called gemma cups present on the thalli. Mosses (bryophytes) reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation and budding of secondary protonema. Asexual reproduction does not takes place in pteridophytes and gymnosperms.